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The Creation of Woman in the Bible

Megan Sauter — Sat, 07 Mar 2026 12:00:33 +0000

This 11th-century mosaic, which shows the scene of Jesus’ crucifixion, comes from the Church of the Dormition in Daphne, Greece. Early Christians found parallels between the Adam and Eve story and Jesus and the Church. In the mosaic, blood and water flow from Jesus’ pierced side in the direction of his mother, Mary. Early Christians believed that just as Eve was birthed from the side of Adam, so the Church was birthed from the side of Jesus.

The creation of woman in the Bible has been the topic of much debate in Biblical Archaeology Review. In “Was Eve Made from Adam’s Rib—or His Baculum?” from the September/October 2015 issue, Ziony Zevit makes a shocking claim about the Adam and Eve story in the Bible.

The Biblical text says that Eve was created from Adam’s tsela‘. Although tsela‘ has traditionally been translated as “rib,” Zevit argues that it is better translated as Adam’s os baculum. This controversial conversation continues in Mary Joan Winn Leith’s article “Creating Woman,” published in the March/April 2016 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

In her article, Leith examines the creation of woman in the Bible. She looks at the etiological and euphemistic support for Zevit’s interpretation, and she considers how this would have fit into ancient views of biology. Then Leith focuses on an interesting part of the Adam and Eve story in the Bible: the “punishment poem” in Genesis 3:14–19.

This poem occurs after Adam and Eve have eaten the forbidden fruit. Because of their disobedience, God curses them. As Leith explains, this curse takes positive relationships, including childbirth, and turns them negative:

[T]he “punishment poem” in Genesis 3:14–19 reverses to negative effect all the positive relationships that prevailed before the humans disobeyed God. Humans and God, man and woman, humans and animals, humans and the earth now become alienated from each other where before all was harmonious. The most famous negative effect of the human disobedience is the woman’s pain in childbirth. At least theoretically then, before the punishment, childbirth in Eden should have been painless. If the father-as-child-bearer principle is hovering in the background of the creation of the woman, then the difficult childbirth promised to the woman in Genesis 3:16 reverses the painless “birth” in Genesis 2, where not only does a man—rather than a woman—give birth, but thanks to the anaesthetic “deep sleep” (tardemah), the man suffers no pain.

Thus, the creation of woman in the Bible from man—the first birth, according to Leith—is painless, but, as the “punishment poem” illustrates, all subsequent births are painful. Further, not only was the first birth painless, but it was a man—not a woman—who shockingly gives birth, setting it apart from all others.

FREE ebook: Exploring Genesis: The Bible’s Ancient Traditions in Context Mesopotamian creation myths, Joseph’s relationship with Egyptian temple practices and 3 tales of Ur, the birthplace of Abraham.

Leith then examines Christian symbolism related to the Adam and Eve story in the Bible. Early Christians believed that Eve was created from Adam’s rib or side, and they found parallels between Adam’s side and Jesus’ side that was pierced during his crucifixion. John 19:34 records, “Instead, one of the soldiers pierced his (Jesus’) side with a spear, and at once blood and water came out.” Early Christians believed that the blood represented the holy Eucharist, and the water represented baptism—two sacraments given by Jesus to the Church. Therefore, the Church was birthed from the side of Jesus, just as Eve was birthed from Adam’s side.

This interpretation is illustrated well in an 11th-century mosaic from the Church of the Dormition in Daphne, Greece. In this mosaic, blood and water flow from the pierced side of Jesus in the direction of his mother, Mary. Leith explains that Mary is often referred to as the “new Eve” and “considered to personify the Church.” The birth of the Church is visually depicted by the blood and water (sacraments) flowing toward Mary (the Church). Adam also makes an appearance in this scene. Jesus’ blood drips onto Adam’s skull at the foot of the cross. This symbolizes 1 Corinthians 15:21–22: “For since death came through a human being (Adam), the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being (Christ); for as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ.”

To learn more about the creation of woman in the Bible, read the full article by Mary Joan Winn Leith—“Creating Woman”—in the March/April 2016 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Subscribers: Read the full article “Creating Woman” by Mary Joan Winn Leith in the March/April 2016 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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This Bible History Daily feature was originally published on March 14, 2016.

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Was Eve Made from Adam’s Rib—or His Baculum?

Creating Woman

Did Eve Fall or Was She Pushed?

Eve and Adam

How Did Adam & Eve Make a Living?

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Who Was the Wife of Cain?

BAS Staff — Sun, 01 Feb 2026 12:00:45 +0000

This illustration shows Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, where God gave them the command to “be fruitful and multiply” (Genesis 1:28). Photo: From Charles Foster, The Story of the Bible (1897).

While there are many examples of strong and inspiring men and women in Genesis, the book is also packed with stories of dysfunctional families, which is evidenced from the very beginning with the first family—Adam, Eve and their two children, Cain and Abel. In no short amount of time—just 16 verses after announcing the birth of Cain and Abel in Genesis 4—Cain has murdered his younger brother and is consequently exiled from the land. In theory, this would have dropped the world’s population from four down to three. The narrative continues in Genesis 4 with Cain settling in the land of Nod and having children with his wife. Who did Cain marry? Where did she come from? Are there other people outside of Eden? In the November/December 2013 issue of BAR, Mary Joan Winn Leith addresses these questions and explores the identity of the wife of Cain in “Who Did Cain Marry?”

Given that the wife of Cain is only mentioned once in the Old Testament, she would not be counted among the famous women in Genesis. Nevertheless, her identity is still worth investigating. Who did Cain marry? Mary Joan Winn Leith first explores the traditional Jewish and Christian answers that contend that the wife of Cain was another daughter of Adam and Eve. According to this reasoning, Cain would have married his sister—one of Abel’s twin sisters no less, according to the Genesis Rabbah.

Mary Joan Winn Leith explores the identity of the wife of Cain.

A different answer emerges when Leith turns from the traditional responses about the wife of Cain and delves into modern scholarship. Looking at recent work done by sociologists and anthropologists, she notes that when forming a group identity, we tend to define ourselves by how we differ from other groups. In the ancient Near East, sometimes those outside of a particular group or society were considered less “human” by those inside of the group. An important factor that contributes to this mindset is geography. People in the ancient Near East typically stayed close to home, which affected their perception of the world. Surely they knew that other groups of people—potential enemies or allies—existed far away, but if they never came into contact with these groups, what did they matter?

Mary Joan Winn Leith suggests that while the Israelite storyteller knew that other men and women in Genesis existed outside of Eden, they did not matter to him or factor into his account. He was concerned with Adam and Eve and their progeny—not those outside of this group.

Who did Cain marry? There are many answers. For Leith’s explanation of the identity of the wife of Cain—one of the often-overlooked women in Genesis—read her full Biblical Views column “Who Did Cain Marry?”

BAS Library Members: Read the full Biblical Views column “Who Did Cain Marry?” by Mary Joan Winn Leith in the November/December 2013 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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This Bible History Daily feature was originally published in 2013.

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

Dealing with the Devil

Was Eve Made from Adam’s Rib—or His Baculum?

Eve and Adam

Cain & Abel

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Who Is Satan?

John Drummond — Tue, 13 Jan 2026 12:00:11 +0000

Wood engraving by Gustave Doré depicting Dante’s Inferno, Canto XXXIV, in which Dante and Virgil encounter Satan in the Ninth Circle of Hell.

From the most comical of cartoons to the most grotesque of gargoyles, the majority of the population today can immediately recognize an image of the devil. But does our modern conception of Satan have any resemblance to the devil in the Bible? Just who is Satan? Is this horned, red-skinned monster with a pitchfork ruling hell truly the great enemy of God envisioned by the writers of the Biblical texts?

The short answer: no, not really.

In the Hebrew Bible, YHWH’s greatest enemies are not fallen angels commanding armies of demons, nor even the gods of other nations, but, rather, human beings. It isn’t the devil that spreads evil across the face of creation—it is mankind. Other than human beings, YHWH has no nemesis, nor are there malevolent spiritual forces not under his authority. YHWH is ultimately a god of justice. He is behind the good and the bad, behind the blessings and the curses. It is within this divine court of justice and retribution that Satan has his origins.

The Hebrew word śāṭān, meaning “accuser” or “adversary,” occurs several times throughout the Hebrew Bible and refers to enemies both human and celestial alike. When referring to the celestial adversary, the word is typically accompanied by the definite article. He is ha-satan—the Accuser—and it is a job description rather than a proper name. From the Accuser’s appearances in the Books of Job and Zechariah, it seems that the job entails calling attention to the unworthiness of mankind. The Accuser is essentially the prosecuting attorney of the divine court of YHWH, and part of his job includes collecting evidence to prove his cases. With this bit of knowledge in mind, it isn’t difficult to envision the various “outcries against sin,” such as that against Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 18:20–21), as the voice of the Accuser.

It is difficult to determine at which point in Israel’s history the Accuser began to take on a much more sinister role in the Israelite/Jewish belief structure, or how heaven’s great prosecutor became the prince of darkness (Ephesians 6:12). It is certainly easy to make the connection between Israel’s time in exile and the likely influence of the cosmic dualism of Persian religion.¹ However, even within books written well after the return from foreign lands, the Accuser is still a self-righteous lawyer. Though if 1 Chronicles 21:1 is any indication,² they began to believe the Accuser wasn’t above getting his hands dirty.

It is perfectly clear, however, that by the first century C.E., Judaism developed a belief in the divine forces of darkness doing battle against the forces of light. This can be seen within the New Testament and other extra-Biblical writings such as those found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. There are likely several factors that inspired these developments, including the influence of Persian, as well as Hellenistic, religions.

If there was an army of evil spiritual forces making war on the righteous, they had to have a commander. It is at this time that the impersonal and lofty Accuser began to acquire the various names and titles that have filled the writings of western civilization for 2,000 years. The Greek word diabolos (from which “devil” is derived), meaning “slanderer,” comes from a verb that means “to hurl” (i.e., accusations).

Diabolos was typically used as the Greek equivalent for the Hebrew śāṭān (in the Septuagint version of Job, for example), though it was not uncommon to simply transliterate the word into the Greek satanas (1 Kings 11:14). Other names used for the leader of the forces of evil at this time include Maśṭēmāh, which means “hatred” (1QM 13:4, 11; Jubilees 10:8), and Belial, a popular name among the writers of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which means “worthless” or “corrupt.” “Children of Belial” (Hebrew: bene-belial) was a typical phrase used to describe evil people in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Deuteronomy 13:13; 1 Samuel 1:16; 2 Chronicles 13:7, etc.). If someone were searching for a name that personified evil in the Hebrew Bible, it would be Belial, not Satan. Interesting enough, the name only occurs once in the New Testament (2 Corinthians 6:15), as Paul’s stark contrast to Christ.

It is also in this period that we begin to see the development of the tradition of equating the talking serpent in the Garden of Eden with Satan (Life of Adam and Eve xi–xvii).

Etruscan fresco of Typhon from the Tomba del Tifone in Tarquinia, Italy, c. third century B.C.E. According to Greek mythology, the montrous Titan Typhon battled the mighty Zeus, who bound his foe in the dark depths of Tartarus to bring about a new era of peace.

Satan’s role in the New Testament, though highly expanded, has much more in common with the Accuser of the Hebrew Bible than the commander of the armies of darkness that is typically portrayed in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Even though he is given such lofty titles as “the ruler of this world” (John 12:31), “father of lies” (John 8:44), “god of this world” (2 Corinthians 4:4), “ruler of the power of the air” (Ephesians 2:2), and Beelzebul, “ruler of the demons” (Matthew 10:25; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:15), Satan is essentially treated as nothing more than a glorified prison warden who has been corrupted by his own power. Throughout the Gospels, Satan’s “kingdom” is never considered to be a burning underworld full of the tormented dead, but, rather, is equated with the bondage of sin and the curses brought upon humanity for acts of unrighteousness. According to Jesus (Matthew 12:29; Mark 3:27; Luke 11:21–22), a “strong man” (Satan) must be bound in order to plunder his house for treasures (humans), and it is clear he viewed his ministry and that of his disciples within this context. All other references to Satan in the New Testament, including those in Revelation, reflect this struggle for spiritual freedom.

Over the course of several centuries of influence from many different cultures, the defeated Accuser of the Christians would go on to appropriate aspects of various divine enemies (Typhon, Hades, Ahriman, Hela, to name but a few) to become the complex mythological monster that was thrown out of heaven at the beginning of time to rule the fiery underworld and torment the souls of the damned. Such a character makes for great movies and Halloween costumes, but would have been virtually unknown to anyone in Biblical times.

Notes

1. Adherents to Zoroastrianism believed in the ongoing battle between Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu (known in later periods as Ormazd and Ahriman), the good creator god of light and order and the evil god of chaos and darkness.

2. Compare the earlier version of the story in 2 Samuel 24 in which YHWH himself is the one who incites David to sin.

This Bible History Daily feature was originally published on November 10, 2016.

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Satan’s Throne

From Seraph to Satan

Fallen Star

Who the Devil is Beelzebul?

Exorcising Demons

The Harrowing of Hell

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Adam and Eve

BAS Staff — Sat, 10 Jan 2026 12:00:26 +0000

In a modern world, there are many ways to understand social change. You may follow the news closely, or read books written by distinguished academics. In particular, you’ll see great debate about women’s roles in society dominating our national discourse.

But did you know that even the Bible is studied for a newer understanding of its traditional themes—themes that have shaped society for millennia?

It’s true. And one of the most closely-studied stories is that of the first people to walk the Earth as God’s creations. The story of Adam, Eve, and the Fall forms the underpinning of almost all of our understanding of men and women, making it perhaps the most important theme from the Bible to study and reconsider.

The brand-new collection in the Biblical Archaeology Society Library, Adam and Eve, highlights intriguing insights on women’s role in the Bible and ancient thought—some of which might even be called feminist, right in the heart of patriarchal world religions.

It’s entirely possible that Adam actually “gave birth” to Eve via his os baculum (penis bone), not his rib.

In the Bible, the Fall is not sexual in nature—and Adam didn’t have to be seduced or convinced to eat the apple.

The ancient religious belief that women are evil is derived not from the Bible, but from extra-Biblical texts known as pseudepigrapha.

A feminist interpretation of the Creation story recasts woman as superior to man.

Certainly you’ll want to explore these ideas. For instance, it almost seems obvious that if humans have always been considered superior to all other animals because they were created last, then Eve, God’s final creation, is therefore the ultimate and most divine of all his works.

Similarly, while traditional interpretations of the reason for the Serpent choosing Eve for his scheme is because she is weaker and less intelligent, it’s equally logical to say Eve was chosen because she is more intelligent and better able to engage in theological discussion with the Serpent.

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Innocent or guilty?

These are just two of the points made in “Eve and Adam: Is a Feminist Reading Possible?” by Professor Pamela J. Milne. But why, exactly, is a feminist reading even necessary? Students of the Hebrew Bible know quite well that the Eve of that story is not a seductress. In fact, she neither deceives Adam nor coerces him into eating the fruit.

Photo: From Charles Foster, The Story of the Bible (1897).

Writes Susan L. Greiner in “Did Eve Fall or Was She Pushed?”:

“The word ‘sin’ is never applied to Eve; indeed, it does not even appear in the Creation account. Further, in the Bible, the Fall is not sexual in nature.”

It’s difficult to decide why the earliest theologians went to such extremes in rewriting Genesis. And while discussion of the topic is enticing, there are other, less gender-charged themes to uncover in the story of Adam and Eve.

For instance, have you ever stopped to consider how Adam and Eve made a living in the Garden of Eden? Frederic L. Pryor and Eleanor Ferris Beach have, and they take readers on a path through anthropological research and the economics of primitive societies to demonstrate that the description of Adam and Eve’s transition from gatherers—in Eden—to farmers/shepherds—after the expulsion from Paradise—closely resembles the evolution of early humans.

Breaking new ground in Biblical studies

For scholars both professional and lay, there is almost nothing more exciting than challenging traditional thought. That’s why this newest Special Collection from the BAS Library is already one of our most popular among our members.

Here’s what’s included in Adam and Eve:

Was Eve Made from Adam’s Rib—or His Baculum? by Ziony Zevit
Creating Woman by Mary Joan Winn Leith
Did Eve Fall or Was She Pushed? by Susan L. Greiner
Eve and Adam—Is a Feminist Reading Possible? by Pamela J. Milne
How Did Adam & Eve Make a Living? by Eleanor Ferris Beach and Frederic L. Pryor

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on June 4, 2019.

The post Adam and Eve appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

The Gospel of Thomas’s 114 Sayings of Jesus

BAS Staff — Thu, 01 Jan 2026 12:00:09 +0000

In “The Gospel of Thomas: Jesus Said What?” in the July/August 2015 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review, New Testament scholar Simon Gathercole examines what the 114 sayings of Jesus from the Gospel of Thomas reveal about the early Christian world in which they were written. Below, read the 114 sayings of Jesus as translated by Stephen J. Patterson and James M. Robinson and republished from The Gnostic Society Library.—Ed.

The Gospel of Thomas

Translated by Stephen J. Patterson and James M. Robinson^*

These are the hidden words that the living Jesus spoke. And Didymos Judas Thomas wrote them down.

(1) And he said: “Whoever finds the meaning of these words will not taste death.”

(2) Jesus says:

(1) “The one who seeks should not cease seeking until he finds.
(2) And when he finds, he will be dismayed.
(3) And when he is dismayed, he will be astonished.
(4) And he will be king over the All.”

(3) Jesus says:

(1) “If those who lead you say to you: ‘Look, the kingdom is in the sky!’ then the birds of the sky will precede you.
(2) If they say to you: ‘It is in the sea,’ then the fishes will precede you.
(3) Rather, the kingdom is inside of you and outside of you.”
(4) “When you come to know yourselves, then you will be known, and you will realize that you are the children of the living Father.
(5) But if you do not come to know yourselves, then you exist in poverty, and you are poverty.”

(4) Jesus says:

(1) “The person old in his days will not hesitate to ask a child seven days old about the place of life, and he will live.
(2) For many who are first will become last, (3) and they will become a single one.”

(5) Jesus says:

(1) “Come to know what is in front of you, and that which is hidden from you will become clear to you.
(2) For there is nothing hidden that will not become manifest.”

(6)

(1) His disciples questioned him, (and) they said to him: “Do you want us to fast? And how should we pray and give alms? And what diet should we observe?”
(2) Jesus says: “Do not lie. (3) And do not do what you hate.
(4) For everything is disclosed in view of .
(5) For there is nothing hidden that will not become revealed.
(6) And there is nothing covered that will remain undisclosed.”

(7) Jesus says:

(1) “Blessed is the lion that a person will eat and the lion will become human.
(2) And anathema is the person whom a lion will eat and the lion will become human.”

(8)

(1) And he says: “The human being is like a sensible fisherman who cast his net into the sea and drew it up from the sea filled with little fish.
(2) Among them the sensible fisherman found a large, fine fish.
(3) He threw all the little fish back into the sea, (and) he chose the large fish effortlessly.
(4) Whoever has ears to hear should hear.”

(9) Jesus says:

(1) “Look, a sower went out. He filled his hands (with seeds), (and) he scattered (them).
(2) Some fell on the path, and the birds came and pecked them up.
(3) Others fell on the rock, and did not take root in the soil, and they did not put forth ears.
(4) And others fell among the thorns, they choked the seeds, and worms ate them.
(5) And others fell on good soil, and it produced good fruit. It yielded sixty per measure and one hundred twenty per measure.”

(10) Jesus says:

“I have cast fire upon the world, and see, I am guarding it until it blazes.”

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(11) Jesus says:

(1) “This heaven will pass away, and the (heaven) above it will pass away.
(2) And the dead are not alive, and the living will not die.
(3) In the days when you consumed what was dead, you made it alive. When you are in the light, what will you do?
(4) On the day when you were one, you became two. But when you become two, what will you do?”

(12)

(1) The disciples said to Jesus: “We know that you will depart from us. Who (then) will rule over us?”
(2) Jesus said to them: “No matter where you came from, you should go to James the Just, for whose sake heaven and earth came into being.”

(13)

(1) Jesus said to his disciples: “Compare me, and tell me whom I am like.”
(2) Simon Peter said to him: “You are like a just messenger.”
(3) Matthew said to him: “You are like an (especially) wise philosopher.”
(4) Thomas said to him: “Teacher, my mouth cannot bear at all to say whom you are like.”
(5) Jesus said: “I am not your teacher. For you have drunk, you have become intoxicated at the bubbling spring that I have measured out.”
(6) And he took him, (and) withdrew, (and) he said three words to him.
(7) But when Thomas came back to his companions, they asked him: “What did Jesus say to you?”
(8) Thomas said to them: “If I tell you one of the words he said to me, you will pick up stones and throw them at me, and fire will come out of the stones (and) burn you up.”

(14) Jesus said to them:

(1)”If you fast, you will bring forth sin for yourselves.
(2) And if you pray, you will be condemned.
(3) And if you give alms, you will do harm to your spirits.
(4) And if you go into any land and wander from place to place, (and) if they take you in,
(then) eat what they will set before you. Heal the sick among them!
(5) For what goes into your mouth will not defile you. Rather, what comes out of your mouth will defile you.”

(15) Jesus says:

“When you see one who was not born of woman, fall on your face (and) worship him. That one is your Father.”

(16) Jesus says:

(1) “Perhaps people think that I have come to cast peace upon the earth.
(2) But they do not know that I have come to cast dissension upon the earth: fire, sword, war.
(3) For there will be five in one house: there will be three against two and two against three, father against son and son against father.
(4) And they will stand as solitary ones.”

Read “Did Jesus Exist? Searching for Evidence Beyond the Bible” by Lawrence Mykytiuk from the January/February 2015 issue of BAR >>

(17) Jesus says:

“I will give you what no eye has seen, and what no ear has heard, and what no hand has touched, and what has not occurred to the human mind.”

(18)

(1) The disciples said to Jesus: “Tell us how our end will be.”
(2) Jesus said: “Have you already discovered the beginning that you are now asking about the end? For where the beginning is, there the end will be too.
(3) Blessed is he who will stand at the beginning. And he will know the end, and he will not taste death.”

(19) Jesus says:

(1)“Blessed is he who was, before he came into being.
(2) If you become disciples of mine (and) listen to my words, these stones will serve you.
(3) For you have five trees in Paradise that do not change during summer (and) winter, and their leaves do not fall.
(4) Whoever comes to know them will not taste death.”

(20)

(1) The disciples said to Jesus: “Tell us whom the kingdom of heaven is like!”
(2) He said to them: “It is like a mustard seed.
(3) is the smallest of all seeds.
(4) But when it falls on cultivated soil, it produces a large branch (and) becomes shelter for the birds of the sky.”

(21)

(1) Mary said to Jesus: “Whom are your disciples like?”
(2) He said: “They are like servants who are entrusted with a field that is not theirs.
(3) When the owners of the field arrive, they will say: ‘Let us have our field.’
(4) (But) they are naked in their presence so as to let them have it, (and thus) to give them their field.”
(5) “That is why I say: When the master of the house learns that the thief is about to come, he will be on guard before he comes (and) will not let him break into his house, his domain, to carry away his possessions.
(6) (But) you, be on guard against the world!
(7) Gird your loins with great strength, so that the robbers will not find a way to get to you.”
(8) “For the necessities for which you wait (with longing) will be found.
(9) There ought to be a wise person among you!
(10) When the fruit was ripe, he came quickly with his sickle in his hand, (and) he harvested it.
(11) Whoever has ears to hear should hear.”

(22)

(1) Jesus saw infants being suckled.
(2) He said to his disciples: “These little ones being suckled are like those who enter the kingdom.”
(3) They said to him: “Then will we enter the kingdom as little ones?”
(4) Jesus said to them: “When you make the two into one, and when you make the inside like the outside and the outside like the inside and the above like the below —
(5) that is, to make the male and the female into a single one, so that the male will not be male and the female will not be female —
(6) and when you make eyes instead of an eye and a hand instead of a hand and a foot instead of a foot, an image instead of an image, (7) then you will enter [the kingdom].”

(23) Jesus says:

(1) “I will choose you, one from a thousand and two from ten thousand.
(2) And they will stand as a single one.”

(24)

(1) His disciples said: “Show us the place where you are, because it is necessary for us to seek it.
(2) He said to them: “Whoever has ears should hear!
(3) Light exists inside a person of light, and he shines on the whole world. If he does not shine, there is darkness.”

(25) Jesus says:

(1) “Love your brother like your life!
(2) Protect him like the apple of your eye!”

(26) Jesus says:

(1) “You see the splinter that is in your brother’s eye, but you do not see the beam that is in your (own) eye.
(2) When you remove the beam from your (own) eye, then you will see clearly (enough) to remove the splinter from your brother’s eye.”

(27)

(1) “If you do not abstain from the world, you will not find the kingdom.
(2) If you do not make the Sabbath into a Sabbath, you will not see the Father.”

(28) Jesus says:

(1) “I stood in the middle of the world, and in flesh I appeared to them.
(2) I found all of them drunk. None of them did I find thirsty.
(3) And my soul ached for the children of humanity, because they are blind in their heart, and they cannot see; for they came into the world empty, (and) they also seek to depart from the world empty.
(4) But now they are drunk. (But) when they shake off their wine, then they will change their mind.”

(29) Jesus says:

(1) “If the flesh came into being because of the spirit, it is a wonder.
(2) But if the spirit (came into being) because of the body, it is a wonder of wonders.
(3) Yet I marvel at how this great wealth has taken up residence in this poverty.”

Is it possible to identify the first-century man named Jesus behind the many stories and traditions about him that developed over 2,000 years in the Gospels and church teachings? Visit the Jesus/Historical Jesus study page to read free articles on Jesus in Bible History Daily.

(30) Jesus says:

(1) “Where there are three gods, they are gods.
(2) Where there are two or one, I am with him.”

(31) Jesus says:

(1) “No prophet is accepted in his (own) village.
(2) A physician does not heal those who know him.”

(32) Jesus says:

“A city built upon a high mountain (and) fortified cannot fall, nor can it be hidden.”

(33) Jesus says:

(1) “What you will hear with your ear {with the other ear} proclaim from your rooftops.
(2) For no one lights a lamp (and) puts it under a bushel, nor does he put it in a hidden place.
(3) Rather, he puts it on a lampstand, so that everyone who comes in and goes out will see its light.”

(34) Jesus says:

“If a blind (person) leads a blind (person), both will fall into a pit.”

(35) Jesus says:

(1) “It is not possible for someone to enter the house of a strong (person) (and) take it by force unless he binds his hands.
(2) Then he will loot his house.”

(36) Jesus says:

“Do not worry from morning to evening and from evening to morning about what you will wear.”

(37)

(1) His disciples said: “When will you appear to us, and when will we see you?”
(2) Jesus said: “When you undress without being ashamed and take your clothes (and) put them under your feet like little children (and) trample on them,
(3) then [you] will see the son of the Living One, and you will not be afraid.”

(38) Jesus says:

(1) “Many times have you desired to hear these words, these that I am speaking to you, and you have no one else from whom to hear them.
(2) There will be days when you will seek me (and) you will not find me.”

(39) Jesus says:

(1) “The Pharisees and the scribes have received the keys of knowledge, (but) they have hidden them.
(2) Neither have they entered, nor have they allowed to enter those who wish to.
(3) You, however, be as shrewd as serpents and as innocent as doves!”

(40) Jesus says:

(1) “A grapevine was planted outside (the vineyard) of the Father.
(2) And since it is not supported, it will be pulled up by its roots (and) will perish.”

(41) Jesus says:

(1) “Whoever has (something) in his hand, (something more) will be given to him.
(2) And whoever has nothing, even the little he has will be taken from him.”

(42) Jesus says:

“Become passers-by.”

(43)

(1) His disciples said to him: “Who are you to say this to us?”
(2) “Do you not realized from what I say to you who I am?
(3) But you have become like the Jews! They love the tree, (but) they hate its fruit. Or they love the fruit, (but) they hate the tree.”

(44) Jesus says:

(1) “Whoever blasphemes against the Father, it will be forgiven him.
(2) And whoever blasphemes against the Son, it will be forgiven him.
(3) But whoever blasphemes against the Holy Spirit, it will not be forgiven him, neither on earth nor in heaven.”

(45) Jesus says:

(1) “Grapes are not harvested from thorns, nor are figs picked from thistles, for they do not produce fruit.
(2) A good person brings forth good from his treasure.
(3) A bad person brings (forth) evil from the bad treasure that is in his heart, and (in fact) he speaks evil.
(4) For out of the abundance of the heart he brings forth evil.”

(46) Jesus says:

(1) “From Adam to John the Baptist, among those born of women there is no one who surpasses John the Baptist so that his (i.e., John’s) eyes need not be downcast.”
(2) “But I have also said: Whoever among you becomes little will know the kingdom, and will surpass John.”

(47) Jesus says:

(1) “It is impossible for a person to mount two horses and to stretch two bows.
(2) And it is impossible for a servant to serve two masters. Else he will honor the one and insult the other.
(3) No person drinks old wine and immediately desires to drink new wine.
(4) And new wine is not put into old wineskins, so that they do not burst; nor is old wine put into (a) new wineskin, so that it does not spoil it.
(5) An old patch is not sewn onto a new garment, because a tear will result.”

(48) Jesus says:

“If two make peace with one another in one and the same house, (then) they will say to the mountain: ‘Move away,’ and it will move away.”

(49) Jesus says:

(1) “Blessed are the solitary ones, the elect. For you will find the kingdom.
(2) For you come from it (and) will return to it.”

(50) Jesus says:

(1) “If they say to you: ‘Where do you come from?’ (then) say to them: ‘We have come from the light, the place where the light has come into being by itself, has established [itself] and has appeared in their image.’
(2) If they say to you: ‘Is it you?’ (then) say: ‘We are his children, and we are the elect of the living Father.’
(3) If they ask you: ‘What is the sign of your Father among you?’ (then) say to them: ‘It is movement and repose.’”

The Nag Hammadi codices contain more than 50 early Christian texts, including the Gospel of Thomas. The forgotten gospel preserves sayings of Jesus that were not included in the canonical Gospels. Photo: Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont, California

(51)

(1) His disciples said to him: “When will the of the dead take place, and when will the new world come?”
(2) He said to them: “That (resurrection) which you are awaiting has (already) come, but you do not recognize it.”

(52)

(1) His disciples said to him: “Twenty-four prophets have spoken in Israel, and all (of them) have spoken through you.”
(2) He said to them: “You have pushed away the living (one) from yourselves, and you have begun to speak of those who are dead.”

(53)

(1) His disciples said to him: “Is circumcision beneficial, or not?”
(2) He said to them: “If it were beneficial, their father would beget them circumcised from their mother.
(3) But the true circumcision in the spirit has prevailed over everything.”

(54) Jesus says:

“Blessed are the poor. For the kingdom of heaven belongs to you.”

(55) Jesus says:

(1) “Whoever does not hate his father and his mother cannot become a disciple of mine.
(2) And whoever does not hate his brothers and his sisters (and) will not take up his cross as I do, will not be worthy of me.”

(56) Jesus says:

“Whoever has come to know the world has found a corpse.
And whoever has found (this) corpse, of him the world is not worthy.”

(57) Jesus says:

(1) “The kingdom of the Father is like a person who had (good) seed.
(2) His enemy came by night. He sowed darnel among the good seed.
(3) The person did not allow (the servants) to pull up the darnel.
He said to them: ‘Lest you go to pull up the darnel (and then) pull up the wheat along with it.’
(4) For on the day of the harvest the darnel will be apparent and it will be pulled up (and) burned.”

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(58) Jesus says:

“Blessed is the person who has struggled. He has found life.”

(59) Jesus says:

“Look for the Living One while you are alive, so that you will not die (and) then seek to see him. And you will not be able to see (him).”

(60)

(1) a Samaritan who was trying to steal a lamb while he was on his way to Judea.
(2) He said to his disciples: “That (person) is stalking the lamb.”
(3) They said to him: “So that he may kill it (and) eat it.”
(4) He said to them: “As long as it is alive he will not eat it, but (only) when he has killed it (and) it has become a corpse.”
(5) They said to him: “Otherwise he cannot do it.”
(6) He said to them: “You, too, look for a place for your repose so that you may not become a corpse (and) get eaten.”

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(61)

(1) Jesus said: “Two will rest on a bed. The one will die, the other will live.”
(2) Salome said: “(So) who are you, man? You have gotten a place on my couch as a and you have eaten from my table.”
(3) Jesus said to her: “I am he who comes from the one who is (always) the same. I was given some of that which is my Father’s.”
(4) “I am your disciple!”
(5) Therefore I say: If someone becomes < like > (God), he will become full of light.
But if he becomes one, separated (from God), he will become full of darkness.

(62) Jesus says:

(1) “I tell my mysteries to those who [are worthy] of [my] mysteries.”
(2) “Whatever you right hand does, your left hand should not know what it is doing.”

(63) Jesus says:

(1) “There was a rich person who had many possessions.
(2) He said: ‘I will use my possessions so that I might sow, reap, plant,
(and) fill my storehouses with fruit so that I will not lack anything.’
(3) This was what he was thinking in his heart. And in that night he died.
(4) Whoever has ears should hear.”

(64) Jesus says:

(1) “A person had guests. And when he had prepared the dinner, he sent his servant, so that he might invite the guests.
(2) He came to the first (and) said to him: ‘My master invites you.’
(3) He said: ‘I have bills for some merchants. They are coming to me this evening. I will go (and) give instructions to them. Excuse me from the dinner.’
(4) He came to another (and) said to him: ‘My master has invited you.’
(5) He said to him: ‘I have bought a house, and I have been called (away) for a day. I will not have time.’
(6) He went to another (and) said to him: ‘My master invites you.’
(7) He said to him: ‘My friend is going to marry, and I am the one who is going to prepare the meal. I will not be able to come. Excuse me from the dinner.’
(8) He came up to another (and) said to him: ‘My master invites you.’
(9) He said to him: ‘I have bought a village. Since I am going to collect the rent, I will not be able to come. Excuse me.’
(10) The servant went away. He said to his master: ‘Those whom you invited to the dinner have asked to be excused.’
(11) The master said to his servant: ‘Go out on the roads. Bring (back) whomever you find, so that they might have dinner.’
(12) Dealers and merchants (will) not enter the places of my Father.”

(65) He said:

(1) “A [usurer] owned a vineyard. He gave it to some farmers so that they would work it (and) he might receive its fruit from them.
(2) He sent his servant so that the farmers might give him the fruit of the vineyard.
(3) They seized his servant, beat him, (and) almost killed him. The servant went (back and) told his master.
(4) His master said: ‘Perhaps did not recognize .’
(5) He sent another servant, (and) the farmers beat that other one as well.
(6) Then the master sent his son (and) said: ‘Perhaps they will show respect for my son.’
(7) (But) those farmers, since they knew that he was the heir of the vineyard, seized him (and) killed him.
(8) Whoever has ears should hear.”

(66) Jesus says:

“Show me the stone that the builders have rejected. It is the cornerstone.”

(67) Jesus says:

“Whoever knows all, if he is lacking one thing, he is (already) lacking everything.”

(68) Jesus says:

(1) “Blessed are you when(ever) they hate you (and) persecute you.
(2) But they (themselves) will find no place there where they have persecuted you.”

(69) Jesus says:

(1) “Blessed are those who have been persecuted in their heart.
They are the ones who have truly come to know the Father.”
(2) “Blessed are those who suffer from hunger so that the belly of the one who wishes (it) will be satisfied.”

(70) Jesus says:

(1) “If you bring it into being within you, (then) that which you have will save you.
(2) If you do not have it within you, (then) that which you do not have within you [will] kill you.”

(71) Jesus says:

“I will [destroy this] house, and no one will be able to build it [again].”

(72)

(1) A [person said] to him: “Tell my brothers that they have to divide my father’s possessions with me.”
(2) He said to him: “Man, who has made me a divider?”
(3) He turned to his disciples (and) said to them: “I am not a divider, am I?”

(73) Jesus says:

(1) “The harvest is plentiful, but there are few workers.
(2) But beg the Lord that he may send workers into the harvest.”

(74) He said:

“Lord, there are many around the well, but there is nothing in the .”

(75) Jesus says:

“Many are standing before the door, but it is the solitary ones who will enter the wedding hall.”

(76) Jesus says:

(1) “The kingdom of the Father is like a merchant who had merchandise and found a pearl.
(2) That merchant is prudent. He sold the goods (and) bought for himself the pearl alone.
(3) You too look for his treasure, which does not perish, (and) which stays where no moth can reach it to eat it, and no worm destroys it.”

(77) Jesus says:

(1) “I am the light that is over all. I am the All. The All came forth out of me. And to me the All has come.”
(2) “Split a piece of wood — I am there.
(3) Lift the stone, and you will find me there.”

(78) Jesus says:

(1) “Why did you go out to the countryside? To see a reed shaken by the wind,
(2) and to see a person dressed in soft clothing [like your] kings and your great persons?
(3) They are dressed in soft clothing and will not be able to recognize the truth.”

(79)

(1) A woman in the crowd said to him: “Hail to the womb that carried you and to the breasts that fed you.”
(2) He said to [her]: “Hail to those who have heard the word of the Father (and) have truly kept it.
(3) For there will be days when you will say: ‘Hail to the womb that has not conceived and to the breasts that have not given milk.’”

(80) Jesus says:

(1) “Whoever has come to know the world has found the (dead) body.
(2) But whoever has found the (dead) body, of him the world is not worthy.”

(81) Jesus says:

(1) “Whoever has become rich should be king.
(2) And the one who has power should renounce (it).”

(82) Jesus says:

(1) “The person who is near me is near the fire.
(2) And the person who is far from me is far from the kingdom.”

(83) Jesus says:

(1) “The images are visible to humanity, but the light within them is hidden in the image.
(2) {} The light of the Father will reveal itself, but his image is hidden by his light.”

(84) Jesus says:

(1) “When you see your likeness you are full of joy.
(2) But when you see your likenesses that came into existence before you — they neither die nor become manifest — how much will you bear?”

(85) Jesus says:

(1) “Adam came from a great power and a great wealth. But he did not become worthy of you.
(2) For if he had been worthy, (then) [he would] not [have tasted] death.”

(86) Jesus says:

(1) “[Foxes have] their holes and birds have their nest.
(2) But the son of man has no place to lay his head down (and) to rest.”

(87) Jesus says:

(1) “Wretched is the body that depends on a body.
(2) And wretched is the soul that depends on these two.”

(88) Jesus says:

(1) “The messengers and the prophets are coming to you, and they will give you what belongs to you.
(2) And you, in turn, give to them what you have in your hands (and) say to yourselves: ‘When will they come (and) take what belongs to them?’”

(89) Jesus says:

(1) “Why do you wash the outside of the cup?
(2) Do you not understand that the one who created the inside is also the one who created the outside?”

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(90) Jesus says:

(1) “Come to me, for my yoke is gentle and my lordship is mild.
(2) And you will find repose for yourselves.”

(91)

(1) They said to him: “Tell us who you are so that we may believe in you.”
(2) He said to them: “You examine the face of sky and earth, but the one who is before you, you have not recognized, and you do not know how to test this opportunity.”

(92) Jesus says:

(1) “Seek and you will find.
(2) But the things you asked me about in past times, and what I did not tell you in that day, now I am willing to tell you, but you do not seek them.”

(93)

(1) “Do not give what is holy to the dogs, lest they throw it upon the dunghill.
(2) Do not throw pearls to swine, lest they turn into [mud].”

(94) Jesus [says]:

(1) “The one who seeks will find.
(2) [The one who knocks], to that one will it be opened.”

(95) [Jesus says:]

(1) “If you have money, do not lend (it) out at interest.
(2) Rather, give [it] to the one from whom you will not get it (back).”

(96) Jesus [says]:

(1) “The kingdom of the Father is like [a] woman.
(2) She took a little bit of yeast. [She] hid it in dough (and) made it into huge loaves of bread.
(3) Whoever has ears should hear.”

(97) Jesus says:

(1) “The kingdom of the [Father] is like a woman who is carrying a [jar] filled with flour.
(2) While she was walking on [the] way, very distant (from home), the handle of the jar broke (and) the flour leaked out [on] the path.
(3) (But) she did not know (it); she had not noticed a problem.
(4) When she reached her house, she put the jar down on the floor (and) found it empty.”

(98) Jesus says:

(1) “The kingdom of the Father is like a person who wanted to kill a powerful person.
(2) He drew the sword in his house (and) stabbed it into the wall to test whether his hand would be strong (enough).
(3) Then he killed the powerful one.”

(99)

(1) The disciples said to him: “Your brothers and your mother are standing outside.”
(2) He said to them: “Those here, who do the will of my Father, they are my brothers and my mother.
(3) They are the ones who will enter the kingdom of my Father.”

(100)

(1) They showed Jesus a gold coin and said to him: “Caesar’s people demand taxes from us.”
(2) He said to them: “Give Caesar (the things) that are Caesar’s.
(3) Give God (the things) that are God’s.
(4) And what is mine give me.”

(101)

(1) “Whoever does not hate his [father] and his mother as I do will not be able to be a [disciple] of mine.
(2) And whoever does [not] love his [father and] his mother as I do will not be able to be a [disciple] of mine.
(3) For my mother […], but my true [mother] gave me life.”

(102) Jesus says:

“Woe to them, the Pharisees, for they are like a dog sleeping in a cattle trough, for it neither eats nor [lets] the cattle eat.”

(103) Jesus says:

“Blessed is the person who knows at which point (of the house) the robbers are going to enter, so that [he] may arise to gather together his [domain] and gird his loins before they enter.”

(104)

(1) They said to [Jesus]: “Come, let us pray and fast today!”
(2) Jesus said: “What sin is it that I have committed, or wherein have I been overcome?
(3) But when the bridegroom comes out of the wedding chamber, then let (us) fast and pray.”

(105) Jesus says:

“Whoever will come to know father and mother, he will be called son of a whore.”

(106) Jesus says:

(1) “When you make the two into one, you will become sons of man.
(2) And when you say ‘Mountain, move away,’ it will move away.”

(107) Jesus says:

(1) “The kingdom is like a shepherd who had a hundred sheep.
(2) One of them went astray, the largest. He left the ninety-nine, (and) he sought the one until he found it.
(3) After he had toiled, he said to the sheep: ‘I love you more than the ninety-nine.’”

(108) Jesus says:

(1) “Whoever will drink from my mouth will become like me.
(2) I myself will become he,
(3) and what is hidden will be revealed to him.”

(109) Jesus says:

(1) “The kingdom is like a person who has a hidden treasure in his field, (of which) he knows nothing.
(2) And [after] he had died, he left it to his [son]. (But) the son did not know (about it either).
He took over that field (and) sold [it].
(3) And the one who had bought it came, and while he was ploughing [he found] the treasure.
He began to lend money at interest to whom he wished.”

(110) Jesus says:

“The one who has found the world (and) has become wealthy should renounce the world.”

(111) Jesus says:

(1) “The heavens will roll up before you, and the earth.
(2) And whoever is living from the living one will not see death.”
(3) Does not Jesus say: “Whoever has found himself, of him the world is not worthy”?

(112) Jesus says:

(1) “Woe to the flesh that depends on the soul.
(2) Woe to the soul that depends on the flesh.”

(113)

(1) His disciples said to him: “The kingdom — on what day will it come?”
(2) “It will not come by watching (and waiting for) it.
(3) They will not say: ‘Look, here!’ or ‘Look, there!’
(4) Rather, the kingdom of the Father is spread out upon the earth, and people do not see it.”

(114)

(1) Simon Peter said to them: “Let Mary go away from us, for women are not worthy of life.”
(2) Jesus said: “Look, I will draw her in so as to make her male, so that she too may become a living male spirit, similar to you.”
(3) (But I say to you): “Every woman who makes herself male will enter the kingdom of heaven.”

The Gospel
According to Thomas

Learn what the sayings of Jesus in the Gospel of Thomas reveal about the early Christian world in which they were written >>

Notes

* Adapted from Stephen J Patterson, James M Robinson and Hans-Gebhard Bethge, The Fifth Gospel: The Gospel of Thomas Comes of Age (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998), pp. 7–32.

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Bible Scholar Brent Landau Asks “Who Were the Magi?”

BAS Staff — Tue, 16 Dec 2025 12:00:13 +0000

A lost Syriac manuscript, the Revelation of the Magi, translated into English by Bible scholar Brent Landau, may help answer that key question from the Christmas story: “Who were the magi?” Photo: Ms Vaticanus Syriacus 163, © 2011 Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.

Who were the magi, those gift-bearing wise men from the east who are so central to the traditional telling of the Christmas story? Bible scholar Brent Landau believes he has found at least one answer to this age-old question.

The Bible tells us very little about the magi. Their story appears but once, in the Gospel of Matthew (2:1–12), where they are described as mysterious visitors “from the east” who come to Jerusalem looking for the child whose star they observed “at its rising.” After meeting with King Herod, who feigns an intention to worship the child but actually plans to destroy him, the magi follow the same star to Bethlehem. There, upon seeing the baby Jesus and his mother Mary, the magi kneel down and worship him, presenting him with their three famous gifts—gold, frankincense and myrrh. Then, without reporting to Herod, they depart for their homeland, never to be heard from again.

For early Christians, the seemingly pivotal yet unexplained background of the mysterious magi provided abundant room to shape new narratives around the question “Who were the magi?” One of the most compelling, recently translated into English by Bible scholar Brent Landau, is the so-called Revelation of the Magi, an apocryphal account of the traditional Christmas story that purports to have been written by the magi themselves.

FREE ebook: The First Christmas: The Story of Jesus’ Birth in History and Tradition. Download now.

The account is preserved in an eighth-century C.E. Syriac manuscript held in the Vatican Library, although Brent Landau believes the earliest versions of the text may have been written as early as the mid-second century, less than a hundred years after Matthew’s gospel was composed. Written in the first person, the Revelation of the Magi narrates the mystical origins of the magi, their miraculous encounter with the luminous star and their equally miraculous journey to Bethlehem to worship the child. The magi then return home and preach the Christian faith to their brethren, ultimately being baptized by the apostle Thomas.

The earliest known depiction of the magi is this mid-third-century C.E. fresco decorating the Catacomb of Priscilla, one of Rome’s oldest Christian cemeteries. Photo: Scala/Art Resource.

According to Brent Landau, this dramatic account not only answers the question “Who were the magi?” but also provides details about how many they were, where they came from and their mysterious encounter with the star that led them to Bethlehem. In the Revelation of the Magi, there are not just three magi, as often depicted in early Christian art (actually, Matthew does not tell us how many there were), nor are they Babylonian astrologers or Persian Zoroastrians, as other early traditions held. Rather from Brent Landau’s translation it is clear the magi (defined in this text as those who “pray in silence”) are a group—numbering as few as 12 and as many as several score—of monk-like mystics from a far-off, mythical land called Shir, possibly China. They are descendants of Seth, the righteous third son of Adam, and the guardians of an age-old prophecy that a star of indescribable brightness would someday appear “heralding the birth of God in human form.”

When the long-prophesied star finally appears, the star is not simply sighted at its rising, as described in Matthew, but rather descends to earth, ultimately transforming into a luminous “star-child” that instructs the magi to travel to Bethlehem to witness its birth in human form. The star then guides the magi along their journey, miraculously clearing their path of all obstacles and providing them with unlimited stamina and provisions. Finally, inside a cave on the outskirts of Bethlehem, the star reappears to the magi as a luminous human child—the Christ child—and commissions them to become witnesses to Christ in the lands of the east.

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It’s a fascinating story, but does it actually bring us any closer to understanding who the actual magi of the Christmas story might have been? Unfortunately, the answer is no, says Landau, although it may provide insight into the beliefs of an otherwise unknown Christian sect of the second century that identified with the mysterious magi.

“Sadly, I don’t think this is actually written by the historical wise men,” said Landau in an interview with National Public Radio’s Diane Rehm. “In terms of who wrote it, we have no idea. [But] the description of the magi and [their religious practices] is so remarkably detailed and I’ve often wondered whether it’s reflecting some actual community out there that practiced and kind of envisioned themselves in the role of the magi.”

Based on Strata, “Lost Syriac Text Gives Magi’s View of the Christmas Story,” Biblical Archaeology Review, November/December 2011.

This Bible History Daily feature was originally published on November 29, 2011.

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The Magi and the Star

Lost Syriac Text Gives Magi’s View of the Christmas Story

Witnessing the Divine

What Was the Star that Guided the Magi?

Ancient Aromas

The Magi’s Gifts—Tribute or Treatment?

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The post Bible Scholar Brent Landau Asks “Who Were the Magi?” appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

The Adam and Eve Story: Eve Came From Where?

BAS Staff — Thu, 27 Nov 2025 12:00:25 +0000

“So the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept; then he took one of his ribs and closed up its place with flesh. And the rib that the Lord God had taken from the man he made into a woman and brought her to the man.”
—Genesis 2:21–22, NRSV

ADAM AND EVE IN THE BIBLE. This mosaic from the Cathedral of Monreale, Sicily, depicts the creation of woman in the Bible. Eve is shown emerging from Adam’s side. Most translations of the Adam and Eve story say that Eve was created from Adam’s rib, but Ziony Zevit contends that she was created from a very different part of Adam’s body.

According to the Bible’s creation account, after making the heavens and the earth, God created humankind. The Adam and Eve story in Genesis 2 states that God formed Adam out of the dust of the ground, and then Eve was created from one of Adam’s ribs. But was it really his rib?

The Hebrew word that is traditionally translated as “rib” is tsela‘. Ziony Zevit, Distinguished Professor of Biblical Literature and Northwest Semitic Languages at American Jewish University in Bel-Air, California, believes that this translation is wrong, as do many scholars. It was first translated as “rib” in the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible from the mid-third century B.C.E. However, a more careful reading of the Hebrew word for “rib” in the Adam and Eve story suggests that Eve was created from another, very different, part of Adam’s anatomy—his os baculum (penis bone).

Zevit carefully examines the account of the creation of woman in the Bible in his article “Was Eve Made from Adam’s Rib—or His Baculum?” which appears in the September/October 2015 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Of the 40 appearances of tsela‘ in the Bible, the Adam and Eve story is the only place where it is translated as “rib.” Usually it means the side of something. Zevit explains the nuance of this word:

This Hebrew word occurs some 40 times in the Hebrew Bible, where it refers to the side of a building or of an altar or ark (Exodus 25:12; 26:20, 26; 1 Kings 6:34), a side-chamber (1 Kings 6:8; Ezekiel 41:6), or a branch of a mountain (2 Samuel 16:13). In each of these instances, it refers to something off-center, lateral to a main structure. The only place where tsela‘ might be construed as referring to a rib that branches off from the spinal cord is in Genesis 2:21–22.

According to Zevit, “rib” is the wrong translation for tsela‘ in the Adam and Eve story in the Bible. Zevit believes that tsela‘ should be translated as “a non-specific, general term,” such as one of Adam’s lateral limbs, in the Adam and Eve story. Thus, it refers to “limbs lateral to the vertical axis of an erect human body: hands, feet, or, in the case of males, the penis.”

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Which of these lateral limbs lacks a bone? Human males do not have a penis bone, but many mammals do. Zevit concludes that in the story of Adam and Eve in the Bible, the woman was created from the man’s baculum to explain why this appendage does not have a bone.

To see Ziony Zevit’s full explanation of the Adam and Eve story in the Bible, read his article “Was Eve Made from Adam’s Rib—or His Baculum?” in the September/October 2015 issue of BAR.

BAS Library Members: Read the full article “Was Eve Made from Adam’s Rib—or His Baculum?” by Ziony Zevit in the September/October 2015 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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This Bible History Daily feature was originally published on September 15, 2015.

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Was Eve Made from Adam’s Rib—or His Baculum?

How Did Adam & Eve Make a Living?

Dealing with the Devil

From Eden to Ednah—Lilith in the Garden

Eve and Adam

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The post The Adam and Eve Story: Eve Came From Where? appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Rock Giants in Noah

Megan Sauter — Tue, 04 Nov 2025 12:00:10 +0000

Ronald S. Hendel

Who—or what—are the rock giants in Noah the movie?

Genesis 6 makes no mention of rock giants—or fallen angels—helping Noah build the ark. Where then did the rock giants in Noah the movie come from? Are they merely an invention by Hollywood scriptwriters?

The Hollywood blockbuster Noah has generated its fair share of controversy, with some saying the movie took too many liberties with the Biblical text. Certainly it is not a straightforward retelling of the flood story in Genesis 6, but as Ronald S. Hendel points out in his Biblical Views column “Noah, Enoch, and the Flood: The Bible Meets Hollywood,” which appears in the July/August 2014 issue of BAR, the flood story has been reimagined in Christian and Jewish texts, such as the apocryphal Book of Enoch, for millennia.

While rock giants are absent from the Book of Genesis, the Book of Enoch might shed light on their identity.

The Book of Enoch is a collection of texts, the earliest dating to the third century B.C.E., supposedly authored by the famous Enoch of the Bible, who lived “in the seventh generation from Adam” (Jude 14) and was taken by God: “Enoch walked with God; then he was no more, because God took him” (Genesis 5:24). This apocryphal book reimagines the account of Genesis 5–6, adding details to the flood narrative and elaborating on what was revealed to Enoch in heaven.

Who are the rock giants in Noah the movie? Are they to be identified with the Watchers, fallen angels in the Book of Enoch?

In its expansion of the flood account we are introduced to the Watchers, fallen angels who mated with human women and produced offspring—the Nephilim, the “heroes that were of old, warriors of renown” of Genesis 6:4—or giants. The Book of Enoch states that the Watchers shared secret knowledge with their sons that led to the corruption of the world. The giants ravaged the earth, filling it with destruction and evil; they depleted the world of food and terrified humankind. These actions trigger the flood.

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Darren Aronofsky’s Noah (2014).

When Enoch confronts the Watchers about their impending doom, they implore him to intercede on their behalf. He agrees—but to no avail. The Watchers’ petition is not granted; they and their sons are not able to escape their punishment—the flood.

Returning to our earlier question: Who are the rock giants in Noah the movie? They’re called fallen angels and are based loosely on the Watchers we see in the Book of Enoch.

To find out more about the Genesis Flood and the Book of Enoch, read the full column “Noah, Enoch, and the Flood: The Bible Meets Hollywood” by Ronald S. Hendel in the July/August 2014 issue of BAR.

BAS Library Members: Read the full Biblical Views column “Noah, Enoch, and the Flood: The Bible Meets Hollywood” by Ronald S. Hendel in the July/August 2014 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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Was Noah’s Ark a Sewn Boat?

A Futile Quest: The Search for Noah’s Ark

An Ancient Coin Depicts Noah’s Ark

Enoch’s Vision of the Next World

The Strange Visions of Enoch

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This Bible History Daily feature was originally published on July 14, 2014.

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Bible Secrets Revealed, Episode 3: “The Forbidden Scriptures”

BAS Staff — Tue, 14 Oct 2025 11:00:38 +0000

The History Channel’s series Bible Secrets Revealed tackles the mysteries of the Bible.

Consulting producer Dr. Robert Cargill, who is an archaeologist and assistant professor of classics and religious studies at the University of Iowa, has responded to Bible Secrets Revealed viewers’ questions throughout the series.

Episode 3, “The Forbidden Scriptures,” aired on November 27, 2013.

Learn more about the show and view a list of other episode summaries.

Summary of Episode 3 by Dr. Robert Cargill

Dr. Robert Cargill, professor and consulting producer

This episode explores many ancient Jewish and Christian documents that didn’t make it into the Bible. Scholars refer to these documents as the “Pseudepigrapha” (books written under a false name) and the “Apocrypha” (which came to be understood as the “hidden books”). The episode asks why these books were excluded from the Bible.

“The Forbidden Scriptures” Act 1: The Biblical Canon

The episode begins by noting that both Judaism at the time of Christianity and early Christianity were incredibly diverse. In fact, when it came to “Scripture,” different Jewish and Christian groups revered different books as authoritative and canonical. We first explore the concept of canonization, asking how and why certain books made it into, or were banished from, the Bible.

Particular attention was paid to the figure of Enoch and the books attributed to him.

Enoch was an incredibly popular figure in the late Second Temple period, and yet the books attributed to Enoch were left out of what became most Jewish and Christian canons. Of course, those responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls loved Enoch and the literature associated with the Enochic tradition (like the Book of Jubilees). But many Christians do not realize that a part of 1 Enoch actually did make it into the Christian canon. Scholars recognize that verses 14-15 of the canonical Epistle of Jude actually quote from 1 Enoch 1:9. We can compare them below:

Jude 14: Enoch, the seventh from Adam, prophesied about these men: “See, the Lord is coming with thousands upon thousands of his holy ones,

Jude 15: to judge everyone, and to convict all the ungodly of all the ungodly acts they have done in the ungodly way, and of all the harsh words ungodly sinners have spoken against him.”

The passage from which Jude claims that Enoch is quoting is actually a rough translation from the Book of Enoch:

1 Enoch 1:9: “And behold! He cometh with ten thousands of his holy ones to execute judgment upon all, and to destroy all the ungodly: And to convict all flesh of all the works of their ungodliness which they have ungodly committed, and of all the hard things which ungodly sinners have spoken against him.”

So despite the fact that the Book of Enoch was excluded from the biblical canon, it was so popular in the first century CE, that a part of it was retained in a quote from the Epistle of Jude.

Because the Book of Enoch is so closely tied to events of canonical Book of Genesis 6:1-4, the episode suggests that 1 Enoch exists, in part, as an apology for God. There seems to have been some ethical questions raised about why an all-knowing God would come to “regret” (cf. Genesis 6:6-7) creating humans and ultimately murder them all (except for Noah and his family, of course) with a flood. It raised questions about God’s omniscience and moral judgment. Thus, some scholars argue that the beginning of the Book of Enoch was attempting to make God look better by explaining the account of the Great Flood as a means by which to save humanity from the unstoppable Giants that were wreaking havoc all over the earth and devouring all of its resources (cf. Jubilees 7:21–25). Thus, rather than understanding the Great Flood as a murderous divine punishment of humans, the Book of Enoch seeks to make God look a little better by suggesting it was the only way to save humanity from the evil of the Giants brought about by the divine-mortal intercourse.

FREE ebook: The Holy Bible: A Buyer's Guide 42 different Bible versions, addressing content, text, style and religious orientation.

“The Forbidden Scriptures” Act 2: Gnostic Christianity

In Act 2, the show introduces the Gnostics and some of their beliefs. The corpus of texts discovered at Nag Hammadi leads to a discussion of Gnosticism and Gnostic Christianity and how this belief system differed from what would become mainstream Christianity. The Gospel of Thomas is highlighted, and there is a discussion about how the Gospel of Thomas differs from the canonical gospels. For instance, Thomas is a collection of sayings of Jesus, but contains no miracles or narratives about Jesus. These differences, coupled with its Gnostic teachings that would later be deemed heretical, are likely the reason it was excluded from the Christian canon.

Read about how the Nag Hammadi texts discovered in Egypt reintroduced the world to Gnostic Christianity in the Bible History Daily article “The Nag Hammadi Codices and Gnostic Christianity.”

“The Forbidden Scriptures” Act 3: The Figure of Mary Magdalene

In Act 3, the documentary examined the person and the Gospel attributed to Mary Magdalene. The show examined the Biblical and popular claims made about Mary—including that she was an important disciple (perhaps most important of the disciples) and that she was married to Jesus. The documentary also suggests that the later attempts to conflate Mary Magdalene with the unnamed “sinful” woman mentioned in Luke 7 were possibly designed to suppress the influence of Mary (and of women in general), while elevating the male disciples (the Apostles) to levels of greater importance within the early church tradition.

The act also discusses the Testimony of Truth and asks why Adam and Eve are prohibited from and then punished for pursuing knowledge by eating from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil.

“The Forbidden Scriptures” Act 4: Did God Have a Wife?

Act 4 begins with the Life of Adam and Eve, which offers a number of additional details about the first biblical family not included in the Biblical accounts, like the origin of disease and death.

This act also explores the concept that God may have had a wife. Inscriptions from Kuntillet Ajrud speak about Asherah as a consort of God in blessings made by those authoring the inscriptions. We have similar inscribed blessings invoking YHWH and Asherah from Khirbet el-Qom. This is a difficult concept for many because the Bible is very clear that God is a singular God (as one would expect in a monotheistic or monolatrous faith). Yet because the prophets were so adamant and repetitious about the fact that idols—including Asherah—were not be worshipped, it is seen as evidence that she was, in fact, being worshipped in ancient Israel and Judah and being invoked in blessings alongside YHWH.

I often use the example of the “NO SKATEBOARDING” signs one might see in public plazas when explaining this to my classes. If you see ubiquitous “NO SKATEBOARDING” signs all over a public place, it is likely that much skateboarding is, in fact, taking place there. (At least enough skateboarding to require a number of signs to discourage the activity.) The same is true for the worship of Asherah: given the fact that the prophetic texts offer so many repeated warnings about worshipping her, it is likely that she was being worshiped in ancient Israel.

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“The Forbidden Scriptures” Act 5: The Apocalypse and the Book of Revelations

The final act introduces the concept of “apocalypse” and spends a moment discussing the Book of Revelation (aka The Apocalypse of John). Act 5 also highlights a trio of pseudepigraphical texts attributed to the Apostle Peter: The Apocalypse of Peter, the Gospel of Peter (which features a giant, resurrected Jesus and a floating, talking cross), and the Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter. It is worth noting that many scholars see the Apocalypse of Peter as a likely inspiration behind Dante’s Inferno, as it was not only as popular as the ultimately canonical Book of Revelation, but also describes a hell where each punishment fits the crime.

Next: Episode 4: “The Real Jesus”

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Should We Take Creation Stories in Genesis Literally?

Robin Ngo — Thu, 14 Aug 2025 11:00:44 +0000

What purpose did creation stories in Genesis serve? Were they Biblical myths? Pictured here is The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man (c. 1617) by Flemish painters Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder.

Were the creation stories in Genesis meant to be taken literally?

Maybe not, says biblical scholar Shawna Dolansky in her Biblical Views column “The Multiple Truths of Myths” in the January/February 2016 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Our world is very different from the world in which the Biblical authors lived over 2,000 years ago. The ancient world did not have Google, Wikipedia and smartphones—access to information on human history and scientific achievements developed over millennia at the touch of their fingertips.

Many scholars believe that the ancient Israelites had creation stories that were told and retold; these stories eventually reached the Biblical authors, who wrote them down in Genesis and other books of the Bible. Creation stories in Genesis were etiological, Shawna Dolansky and other Biblical scholars argue.¹ That is, the creation stories in Genesis served to provide answers to why the world was the way it was, such as why people wear clothes and why women experience pain during childbirth.

Creation stories in Genesis were among the many myths that were told in the ancient Near East. Today we may think of myths as beliefs that are not true, but as a literary genre, myths “are stories that convey and reinforce aspects of a culture’s worldview: many truths,” writes Dolansky. So to call something a myth—in this sense—does not necessarily imply that it is not true.

Scholars argue that Biblical myths arose within the context of other ancient Near Eastern myths that sought to explain the creation of the world. Alongside Biblical myths were Mesopotamian myths in which, depending on the account, the creator was Enlil, Mami or Marduk. In ancient Egyptian mythology, the creator of the world was Atum in one creation story and Ptah in another.

Shawna Dolansky

“Like other ancient peoples, the Israelites told multiple creation stories,” writes Shawna Dolansky in her Biblical Views column. “The Bible gives us three (and who knows how many others were recounted but not preserved?). Genesis 1 differs from Genesis 2–3, and both diverge from a third version alluded to elsewhere in the Bible, a myth of the primordial battle between God and the forces of chaos known as Leviathan (e.g., Psalm 74), Rahab (Psalm 89) or the dragon (Isaiah 27; 51). This battle that preceded creation has the Mesopotamian Enuma Elish as its closest analogue. In Enuma Elish, the god Marduk defeats the chaotic waters in the form of the dragon Tiamat and recycles her corpse to create the earth.”

In what other ways do Biblical myths parallel ancient Near Eastern myths? What can we learn about the world in which the ancient Israelites lived through the creation stories in Genesis? Learn more by reading the full Biblical Views column “The Multiple Truths of Myths” by Shawna Dolansky in the January/February 2016 issue of BAR.

BAS Library Members: Read the full Biblical Views column “The Multiple Truths of Myths” by Shawna Dolansky in the January/February 2016 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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Notes

1. For example, see Ziony Zevit, “Was Eve Made from Adam’s Rib—or His Baculum?” BAR, September/October 2015; Mary Joan Winn Leith, “ReViews: Restoring Nudity,” BAR, May/June 2014.

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

The Creation Story from Genesis

Creation Myths Breed Violence

The Persistence of Chaos in God’s Creation

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This Bible History Daily feature was originally published on January 31, 2016.

The post Should We Take Creation Stories in Genesis Literally? appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

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The Creation of Woman in the Bible

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The Gospel of Thomas

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The Adam and Eve Story: Eve Came From Where?

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Rock Giants in Noah

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Bible Secrets Revealed, Episode 3: “The Forbidden Scriptures”

Summary of Episode 3 by Dr. Robert Cargill

“The Forbidden Scriptures” Act 1: The Biblical Canon

“The Forbidden Scriptures” Act 2: Gnostic Christianity

“The Forbidden Scriptures” Act 3: The Figure of Mary Magdalene

“The Forbidden Scriptures” Act 4: Did God Have a Wife?

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“The Forbidden Scriptures” Act 5: The Apocalypse and the Book of Revelations

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Should We Take Creation Stories in Genesis Literally?

Notes

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